Comparative life cycle assessment of 3D printed and chemically constructed core-shell structures for agricultural applications

Official URL: https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biteb.2026.102881

Quantifying the environmental footprint of applied research is essential for translating lab findings into real-world products to serve as a key factor in decision-making around scaling. Core–shell structures have been explored as a promising strategy for controlled fertilizer release in agriculture, with the potential to enhance nutrient delivery efficiency and reduce environmental loss, though their widespread adoption remains limited. This study compares environmental footprints of bench-scale coaxial direct ink writing (cDIW) and traditional chemical encapsulation methods. To benchmark the use of cDIW encapsulation of carbon dots (C-dots) as agricultural fertilizers, three representative studies on chemically encapsulated fertilizers were selected for comparison. A life cycle assessment (LCA) was conducted using a cradle-to-gate boundary, encompassing raw material extraction through final product manufacturing, while excluding post-manufacturing stages (e.g., transportation and usage). Global warming potential (GWP) per functional unit (100 g) was chosen as the key environmental indicator. The assessment reveals that the cDIW method significantly reduces GWP, emitting 13.86 kg CO₂ per functional unit compared to the 51.5–237.7 kg CO₂ range observed for traditional chemical encapsulation methods. These findings highlight the environmental advantages of cDIW, positioning it as a scalable and sustainable alternative to conventional encapsulation processes. By revealing the environmental trade-offs between the fabrication methods, this study offers critical insights to guide material selection and process design in agricultural technologies. The results support the integration of greener fabrication methods into sustainable agricultural products and offer valuable direction for aligning technological innovation with sustainability goals.